A Survey of How Freemasonry is Portrayed in the Media

Craig Johnson MA DMS DipRes PGCHEP FHEA MCIM (PPSGD)

Lodge of Connaught & Truth No. 521

Province of Yorkshire West Riding

1. Introduction

The objective of this paper is to use informal content analysis to measure the perception of English Freemasonry in an unobtrusive manner. To do this the context of eighty-one articles which appeared in The Times were analysed to try and understand the deeply ingrained assumptions and generalisations which people hold about Freemasons and Freemasonry.

2. Methodology

The world-wide web site of The Times (http://personal.the-times.co.uk) which contains archived articles of that newspaper was searched during May of 1997 using the word freemason. Eighty-one “hits” were reported by the site [1] . Each “hit” was printed out and analysed between October and December of 1997.

The search word freemason was chosen so that it would not include any irrelevant articles alluding to operative masonry, and as the root of the word was being used connotations such as freemasonry and freemasons would also be found. An inductive methodology evolved consisting of three stages. The first stage was to read through each article and glean the headings under which they could be generally attributable. Two types of heading evolved, one involving perception (For example the difference between negative and positive publicity) and the other common themes which emerged from the articles. The second stage was refinement of the first stage and was the documentation stage. The headings were transferred to a spreadsheet and a two-dimensional matrix was contrived with the theme as the row and the corresponding article as the column. The spreadsheet was 78 x 81 in size and by using matrix multiplication correlations between perceptions could be more readily identified. The third stage and final stage was data verification.

3. Discussion on the Use of The Times

The Times was primarily chosen by virtue of the opportunity it afforded in being able to retrieve articles from its web site. With a circulation of just over the half-million, The Times is the most widely-read broadsheet:

The Times may therefore be considered a good yardstick of public opinion towards Freemasonry. The search took place between the 11th-17th June 1997. As the records archived on the web site start on the 1st January 1996 this represents an 18 month period as no more articles were recorded as appearing during the latter half of June 1996.

4. Quality of the Publicity

4.1 Definitions

4.2 Findings

The quality of the exposure is of primary importance as this will have some influence on the way Freemasonry is perceived by the general public. If the general public read information which reinforces the commonly held stereotypes of Freemasonry this will serve to strengthen their view. Information which is contrary to their stereotypes would have to be substantial for them to change their perceptions, but may serve to inculcate doubt in their assumptions.

Table 2 shows the entire population of categories. If, however, the Incidental Publicity items are removed (There were, for example, 11 cursory mentions of Freemasons Hall, London) from the analysis the following analysis is derived:

Of the 57 articles which were reviewed as having either positive or negative publicity, nearly 80% of publicity received in The Times was negative.

5. Tenor of the Articles Surveyed

5.1 Definitions

Having examined the quality of the coverage received, the material was surveyed to consider the general tenor of the articles and whether The Times could be considered to be biased in its coverage of the Craft.

5.2 Findings

This category considered the editorial policy of The Times and was more concerned with how the paper approached the subject of the Craft. It was less concerned with what was said in the articles but more with how it was reported.

In majority of cases (73%) no strong opinion on the material was evinced (Usually the material was not of a strong enough nature to warrant an opinion, or as shown in the previous section was considered to be Incidental Publicity). In the majority of the remaining items (17%) of the material was considered to be of a Balanced nature, with only a small percent (3%) showing some form of bias.

This analysis demonstrates that The Times is reporting objectively and fairly; it is rather the people’s opinions which create the bias against the Craft.

6. Category of News Items

Table 5 - Definitions of News Items Retrieved

6.1 Definition

The majority of the material analysed were contained in the news sections of The Times, this section isolates articles which may be considered Incidental Publicity and therefore superfluous to the analysis of measuring perceptions.

6.2 Findings

The two exceptions to being dismissed from the analysis are firstly the Letters section, as this records opinions expressed by the Grand Secretary [52] [54] and three from members [53b] [58] [62] and one from somebody outside the Craft [53]. One retrieval under the obituaries section is found to be relevant [11], although a typographic error is the cause of [23] being retrieved under the word search.

The operas held at Freemasons Hall, Covent Garden can be discounted as incidental to the analysis [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]. The racing section recorded hits due to a stable being called Freemasons Lodge [71] [72] [74] [75]. Under the Court heading a Christmas Service for Freemasons at Wells Cathedral can be discounted [42], along with the attendance of The Duke of Kent at various Grand Lodge functions [39] [40] [43]. Finally the foundation of Grand Lodge in 1717 must be discarded as no perception is involved, as should the answer to the puzzle who was Hiram Abif (!):

a) An Arabian fabulist

b) A lost epic

c) An early Freemason

Having isolated some of the superfluous material in the previous section, it is necessary to readjust the total figures. Eighty-one articles were retrieved from which can be discounted the five opera articles, the four racing articles, the four court articles, the obituary which was found to be an typographical error, the anniversary of Grand Lodge and the word puzzle. This is a total of 16 articles. The number of articles which will be used for analysis is therefore 65 which be referred to henceforth as the adjusted figure. It should be noted that in the following articles a large number of mentions implies that these are the most hotly-contended debates, the number of for and against arguments are not recorded and serve to highlight the major issues rather than act in judgement.

7. Major Stories Covered in the News

7.1 Definition

Major items of news were analysed to investigate the major issues which were being reported.

7.2 Findings

Of the above items 42% of news were covered by the eight themes cited. By far the largest amount was coverage of the Select Committee (See coverage of the Select Committee in Section 8 on page 10). Whilst this may skew the analysis in favour of such issues as the police and Freemasonry the coverage of the Select Committee is actually considered an advantage as it exposes some of the Craft’s antagonists’ deeply-held (if somewhat ill-founded) convictions. [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [46]

In joint second was Sir Frederick Crawford’s appointment as Chairman of the Criminal Cases Review Commission where Sir Frederick was accused as having a conflict of interest due to his membership of the Craft. (See Freemasonry & Public Life of Section 9). [13] [21] [24] [31].

The Hiram Key received several reviews which was evenly divided between incredulity Jesus was a Freemason-type articles to ones where some credibility was attached to their hypotheses, owing to the authors’ membership of the Craft. [6] [8] [34] [50]

Whilst not showing statistical significance in terms of newsworthiness the articles which had two citings were useful in identifying some of the commonly-held perceptions of Freemasonry. The two articles of Kenneth Noye’s association with Freemasonry (the person wanted for questioning in the “M25 road rage murder”) were cited by Martin Short (See “Smear tactics” of Section 12.1.13 on page 25) in the Home Office Select Committee [46] whilst the other article appears to be an objectively written article of this notorious criminal’s association with the police as an informer [10].

The two articles about the outgoing and incoming RUC Chief Constables are noteworthy because they specifically mention them both as not being Freemasons. [7] [9] Whilst in a rather tasteless display of jumping to ill-conceived conclusions, Freemasonry is linked as in cover-up of the perpetrator’s gun licence in the Dunblane massacre [22] (See Unfounded Suspicion of Section 12.1.3 on page 17) which only receives one denial in a separate article [64].

Two articles appear in relation to local authority planning applications [33] (Covered under Actual Evidence / Facts in Section 12.1.16 on page 27) Councillors were censured by an ombudsman for not declaring an interest, however “The ombudsman felt that the applications would all have been approved, even if the councillors had declared an interest” [25], whilst “Masonic influence” is cleared in the second item [33]. (This item is also shown under Unfounded Suspicion in Section 12.1.3 of page 17).

In the final item, the Pope’s visit to France is noteworthy because no distinction is made between Freemasonry under different constitutions and therefore the United Grand Lodge of England is Tarred with the same brush as other constitutions (See Section 12.1.14 on page 26). We are not informed which constitution these Freemasons belong to.

8. Select Committee

8.1 Definition

The opinions of the various organisations involved in giving evidence to the Home Office Select Committee.

8.2 Findings

Even though it is not an official body, much weight was attributed to the opinions of the Association of Chief Police Officers which was in favour of introducing a compulsory register of Freemasons in the Police Force. (See Unfounded Suspicion in Section 12.1.3, page 17). Although the evidence presented concurred with the fact there is much unjustified paranoia about the influence of Freemasonry, it was exactly for this reason that ACPO favoured introducing a register; by legislation if necessary. [18] [19] [21] [24] [27] [28] [32]. This opinion was agreed by the Police Complaints Authority [19] [32]

In direct contrast to this both the Superintendents Association [18] [19] [24] [26] [28] and the Police Federation [14] [19] [26] [28] saw the introduction of such draconian measures as a groundless invasion of privacy.

Speaking as part of the law profession, The Association of Women Barristers presented a number of unsubstantiated opinions (See Unfounded Suspicion in Section 12.1.3, page 17 and Sexual discrimination Section 12.1.15, page 27) whilst the Lord Chancellor’s balanced view of Freemasonry was not well received by the Committee. (See Conspiracy Theory, Section 12.1.9, page 22 and Problems with a Freemason’s Oath Section 12.1.10, page 22).

9. Freemasonry & Public Life

9.1 Definition

The perception that Freemasonry was incompatible with society appeared very strong. Each significant profession was recorded for the number of times it was mentioned in articles.

9.2 Findings

The perception that the Police is strongly associated with the Freemasons is highly significant amongst the total number of adjusted material. [6] [7] [9] [10] [14] [17] [18] [19] [24] [27] [28] [31] [32] [45] [50 [59] Freemasonry is mentioned for an insignificant amount in relation to organised crime. [10] [12] [45]

Second on the list of hotly-debated concerns is that Judges are members of the Craft [11] [16] [17] [21] [25 [50] whilst Magistrates, for some reason are given less attention. [15] [17] [45] and the law profession in general is given less attention still. [14] [45]

Members of Parliament who are Freemasons are the third most highest area of concern [14] [20] [32] [45] [50] whilst members who are Councillors appears to be slightly less [25] [33] which ranks with an equally insignificant perception that there is incompatibility between membership of the Craft by members of the Clergy [28] [29].

10. Membership of Individuals

10.1 Definition

This section is concerned with examining the basic right of members of free society to associate with whom they please.

10.2 Findings

The highest score was in relation to the point of whether membership of the Craft was seen to be conflicting with ones professional judgement, scoring just under a third in all the articles reviewed. [7] [9] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [24] [27] [28] [31] [32] [33] [37] [45] [53] [63].

Second to this was the debate about whether a membership register should be imposed, how this would be implemented, and the breadth of professions this would incorporate. Compulsory registers are unknown in relation to voluntary organisations, apparently Freemasons are ranked next to paedophiles in the way in which the are to be protected from the public. [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [26] [27] [28] [32] [45] [51] [53b] [57] [63]

Denial of membership is closely associated with Difference in Definition of “Secret Society” in Section 12.1.8, page 21, in that in these cited opinions the authors suggest that “Masons would deny they were members”. [37] [53]

In two articles already cited it was considered noteworthy that the former and present Chief Constables of the RUC were not Freemasons [7] [9] whilst in one article the Chairman of British Airways was obliged to deny membership, as if it were something significant to his role [37].

11. Personalities

11.1 Definition

This category was instituted to record the number of recognisable names associated with items of newsworthy articles who have not already been mentioned.

11.2 Findings

Within this category the Grand Secretary scores the highest amount, also being successful in having two letters published. [14] [25] [27] [28] [52] [53] [54]

One of Jeremy Clarkson’s favourite objects of mirth is apparently Freemasons (See Linked to a particular class in society in Section 12.1.5 on page 19) [65] [66] [68].

The memory of Scotland’s baird proves its usual mixture of lively opinion [61] [76] whilst Freemasonry’s chief antagonist in Parliament Chris Mullin, (Now Chairman of the Select Committee) also receives two mentions [31] [64]. That erstwhile pedlar of fantasy Martin Short [19] meanwhile has to be content with joint bottom along with Jim Davidson [67].

12. Commonly Held Perceptions and Comments Made

12.1 Definition

Each article of the material was analysed for the perceptions and/or theme which proved to be common throughout. It should be noted under these categories the articles are not exclusive in the sense that one article can cover many different perceptions. The quotes which are used below may therefore be common to a number of categories, but are used here in addition to the quantitative analysis which appears above to give a qualitative flavour of the context in which they appear.

12.1.1 Inaccurate reporting likely to mislead

The “inaccurate reporting likely to mislead” category covers all reporting which grossly misrepresents Freemasonry. It includes articles which either perpetuate the myths involving the imagined precepts of Freemasonry, or does not correctly portray the concepts of the internal organisation of Freemasonry in England and Wales.

Whilst at first view this might appear trivial, it demonstrates that the public at large are more willing to cling to their old fantasies about Freemasonry and become slave to their old preconceptions.

Journalists are adept at making a story more interesting than it actually is by careful use of language. To engage the reader’s interest is of primary interest and this may be at the cost of an accurate portrayal.

A good example of “inaccurate reporting likely to mislead” exists in their vernacular use of the word Brotherhood to describe the Order [19] [21] [57]. The use of the word brotherhood is extremely rare inside the Craft, in fact it is only used once in the ritual used by my Lodge (during the third degree obligation).

Journalists, however, use the term to connote a Mafia-like association. Of course, journalists using brotherhood helps sell books as it titillates the reader’s interest by implying the author has a forbidden revelation (Stephen Knight’s and Martin Short’s “exposés” were called The Brotherhood and Inside the Brotherhood respectively). From the writer’s pen this concept takes on a life of its own as it is subsumed into the psyche of the general public, where it is used as if it were the definitive term. [57]

Another example of dressing the truth with words to make it sound better is in the relationship between Chapter and the Craft. Thus in are confidently informed that “Sir Frederick Crawford is a Royal Arch Freemason” [24], evoking the idea that Chapter is some sort of supreme oligarchy reserved for Freemasonry’s most illustrious members. Supreme Grand Chapter sounds far more illustrious!

This theme is continued in another article which proceeds to publish the names of Freemasons who are judges and officers of the Supreme Grand Chapter [21]. Of the twenty-four judges who are quoted as being members, five are retired.

In two instances the concept of “the Masonic Lodge” is misconstrued. For example we are told the “there were at least two Lodges in the Houses of Parliament” [20] that there existed “a number of Mason’s lodges for lawyers” [21]. This perception manifests itself in the concept that the Lodge system is organised around professions rather than the reality where certain professions can sometimes dominate a lodge for no other reason than by the fortune of the common association of its membership.

In a grossly irresponsible article written by a practising solicitor Patrick Stevans boldly states that:

The religious and moral basis of Freemasonry is slight to say the least [45]

I don’t know where Mr Stevans gets his ideas from, but they are both ill-conceived and ill-founded, and this type of statement goes to underline the fact that people are basing their opinions on their own preconceptions which are contrary to the precepts of a secular society.

Results

13 articles categorised under this heading.

[19] [20] [21] [24] [25] [27] [33] [45] [51] [57] [61] [76] [78] [79]

12.1.2 Institutionalised nepotism

Nepotism is defined as favouritism shown to relatives in conferring offices or privileges and is derived from the French for “nephew”. Indeed the term originated from popes who had illegitimate sons, euphemistically referred to as nephews. One of the commonly held charges levelled against Freemasonry is that it is a society for mutual self-advancement:

Nothing so much undermines public confidence in public institutions than the knowledge that some public servants as the knowledge that some public servants are members of a secret society, one of whose aims is mutual self-advancement [14]

Critics of Freemasonry simple refuse to believe it is a friendly society whose members choose to associate purely for convivial company:

Unlike the golf club, there appears to outsiders to be no purpose in masonry other than furthering the interests of fellow masons.... [45]

The “evidence” for this notion is a misconstrued interpretation of the third degree obligation:

... that my hand given to a Master Mason shall be a sure pledge of brotherhood, my feet shall traverse through dangers and difficulties to unite with his in forming a column of mutual support and defence.... and, hand over back, I will support a Master Mason’s honour in his absence as in his presence.

Quoted out of context, passages of ritual like this sounds as if Freemasons would quite literally bend over backwards to come to the aid of distressed Brother:

The (Police Complaints Authority) says that there is a perception among many members of the public that Masons who are police officers might be tempted to put their loyalty to their Brethren before their official duties [19]

Such zealously amongst members is contrary to common sense and self-preservation. An extension to this perception is that Freemasonry is an effective network of Lodges, somewhat similar to the way the way in which terrorist organisations are organised:

Women barristers were also concerned that because the system of appointment to the judiciary depended on “secret soundings”, the network afforded by Freemasonry gave members a means through which they could meet senior judges that was not open to women candidates. [21]

It is perhaps worth bearing in mind that the Prime Minister’s wife is a barrister before dismissing this organisation as archetypal feminists.

Results

12 articles categorised under this heading.

[14] [18] [19] [21] [22] [25] [27] [31] [32] [37] [63] [45]

12.1.3 Unfounded Suspicion

This category was instituted to record the number of unsubstantiated complaints against the Craft. Much of this “evidence” apparently lives in people’s imaginations as, whilst I discovered plenty of evidence which suggested impropriety by members of the Craft, I found a negligible amount of direct evidence. (See Actual Evidence / Facts, Section 12.1.16 on page 27). This category is inexorably linked to the concept of Institutionalised nepotism (See Section 12.1.2 on page 16) as it is the manifestation of the belief that “Freemasonry is a society formed for self-advancement”.

The largest amount of unfounded suspicion was directed against the Police (as shown in Freemasonry & Public Life in Section 9 on page 11), for example:

... the Police Complaints Authority warned MPs last year that the public had lingering suspicions about police probity in some internal investigations [32]

The above extract is representative of the kind of innuendo directed at the Craft:

The submission says that while very few complaints allege that misconduct has occurred as a direct result of an officer’s membership of the Freemasons, there were rather more cases involving suspicion of Masonic influence [19]

Masonic obligations are more closely examined in Problems with a Freemason’s Oath in Section 12.1.10 on page 22. The alleged number of Masons in the Metropolitan Police is continued in a further article:

At one time it was estimated that 20 per cent of the London force were members of lodges and freemasonry was said to have a strong hold on the top echelons of many provincial forces [32]

The above statement is merely hearsay which can not be substantiated. I have never come across a figure for the amount of serving officers who are member of the Craft and no effort is made to test whether the above “statistic” is significant within the population of either Freemasonry or the Metropolitan Police as a whole. This statistic can be dismissed as mere speculation.

The imagined grip of Freemasonry over the police force is a theme taken up by Paul Whitehouse, Chief Constable of Sussex, on behalf of the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO):

There is a wealth of belief about Freemasonry in the police service but very little fact. What we are trying to do is to reassure the public that everyone in the police service is determined to deliver a fair service... Mr Whitehouse said Freemasonry was not a major problem but it had been necessary to allay public fears [27]

A point taken up by another police association:

The [Superintendent’s] Association claimed that [APCO] were... acting on very slender evidence. Although there has been rumours about bias in the police caused by Freemasonry, there was no evidence to support it [26]

This form of damaging speculation is fuelled by wild remarks such as:

Sometimes senior police officers or middle-ranking police officers are members of the same Masonic Lodge as people who are suspected of quite serious offences [18]

Such unsubstantiated accusations that there is a link between the Craft and cover-ups are not uncommon. For example, in the aftermath of the Dunblane massacre [22] Frank Cook, MP for Stockton North stated that Thomas Hamilton and the senior police officer who approved his firearms certificate were both Freemasons. He speculated that:

... such a police officer of a provincial force would unlikely not to be Freemason, that the apparent deletion of all computer reference to Hamilton in the databank of Central Scotland Police files for the period both before and after the incident demands clear explanation [22]

Clearly Mr Cook is pontificating in this statement. The damage, however, is already done as a rebuke to this accusation would not normally appear (it hardly qualifies as news) and yet this statement serves to reinforce the negative stereotype Freemasonry.

In evidence given to the Home Office Select Committee Ms Josephine Haynes, Chair of the Association of Women Barristers stated that there was:

... anecdotal evidence of public concern... The association cites one anonymous instance where a person had applied, unsuccessfully, to be a Queen’s Counsel, and then on becoming a Freemason was successful [21]

Anonymous instances are exactly the form of anecdotal evidence that this category was designed for. As a practising barrister Ms Haynes really should know better than to deal in such speculation. A view which is echoed by Patrick Stevens:

The significance of the incident is that though Freemasons may not have any power, there is widespread feeling in the criminal justice system that they may have [45]

Another form of alleged institutionalised nepotism manifests itself in the form of preference given to fellow masons for planning applications. We are informed:

Since the Ombudsman was set up in 1975, there have been more than 30 complaints about undue influence by Masons on councils, especially in planing cases. All of them have been rejected but public concern about Freemasonry has led to the publication of nine reports, even though this is not normal practice when a complaint has not been upheld. [25]

This is reflected in a case this year where:

The Freemasons have been cleared of maladministration on a district council after a year-long investigation by the Local Government Ombudsman. His report, to be published today, has found that Masons who served as councillors on Medina council did not misuse their position to push through planning applications. The council was merged into the new Isle of Wight authority last year and no longer exists. [33]

The above statement is an example of Inaccurate reporting likely to mislead, covered in Section 12.1.1 on page 14 as The Freemasons were not under investigation. Individuals who happened to be Freemasons were under investigation. Again this statement demonstrates the belief that the individual is subsumed into the wider organisation of Freemasonry.

?????????

Coming back to article [25] above the nine “special” reports are clearly a waste of public money yet this fact is not pointed out. One gets the impression that the anti-masonic lobby feels that when Freemasonry is found to have no bearing on a case it deepens their conviction that this is further evidence of masonic conspiracy!

Results

11 articles categorised under this heading.

[16] [18] [19] [21] [22] [25] [26] [31] [32] [33] [45]

12.1.4 Getting our Message Across

This category refers to opportunities afforded by the Craft in answering the critics of Freemasonry. Recorded under this heading are three news articles [14] [28] [31] which were replies to the findings of the Home Office Select Committee.

As a lawful and law-abiding society, Freemasons will be disappointed by this hasty conclusion... a recommendation which, if implemented, would interfere with a fundamental right in British life. There is no basis for saying that Freemasonry’s aims is mutual self-advancement. [14]

Last night Michael Hyams [sic], grand secretary of the United Grand Lodge of England, said he did not think Freemasons should be singled out. They were not, he said, a secret society. He said membership was part of private life and even police officers were entitled to a private life. [28]

... Mr Hamill denied that Freemasons were under a loyalty pledge to assist a “brother” at all times, even when he had done something wrong, and said there was no conflict of interest: “A Freemason’s prime duty is to the law and his professional responsibilities. [31]

Two opinion articles [45] [64] also appear. The remainder of this category come under the letters category, including two from the Grand Secretary [52] [54] and three from members [53b] [58] [62] which will be covered elsewhere.

Results

10 articles categorised under this heading.

[14] [28] [31] [45] [52] [53b] [54] [58] [62] [64]

12.1.5 Linked to a particular class in society

An underlying theme within some of the material was that Freemasonry was a predominantly middle-class activity as demonstrated by the article Hands off the apron-wearing classes [64]. We also find that Kenneth Noye, wanted in relation to the M25 “road rage” killing used Freemasonry as a way of gaining respectability and allegedly making contacts within Scotland Yard [10].

Jeremy Clarkson, shining wit and car bore seems particularly fond of associating cars to Freemasonry [65] [66] [68]

Britain’s Freemasons will pay a premium for a BMW or Mercedes badge: but Audi? [65]

Aston Martin V8 coupe “Other people who would look stupid in it include Liberal Democrats, Freemasons, folk singers, nancy boy footballers, vicars, scoutmasters, people who like DIY or Michael Bolton, environmentalists, and anyone who has ever been to a poetry reading...... [68]

Results

8 articles categorised under this heading.

[9] [38] [59] [61] [64] [65] [66] [68]

12.1.6 Synonymous with secrecy

The fact that membership of the Freemasons is to be kept secret has fallen into common parlance, two articles were picked up under within this context:

Equity analysts, like freemasons, are secretive creatures who prefer to conduct their strange rituals well out of the public eye [36]

But who exactly are these voters? The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Science, launched in 1927, remains about as shrouded in mystery as the freemasons. [44]

More specifically to the context of planning applications, an ombudsman states:

Rightly or wrongly, Freemasonry is generally viewed with suspicion among non-Masons, not least because of the secrecy attached to ‘the Craft’ [25]

Based on a perspective of ignorance Patrick Stevens asserts:

It is the element of secrecy with masons which causes concern. It is in the nature of men to form clubs and societies and do each other favours simply because they know each other [45]

and concludes:

While no one would interfere with the right of middle-aged men to wear peculiar garb in private, the secret membership of such organisations is incompatible with the open administration of justice [45]

This section is very closely tied up with the section entitled Difference in Definition of “Secret Society” of Section 12.1.8 where the theme of secret society will be expanded upon.

Results

8 articles categorised under this heading:

[6] [18] [19] [25] [36] [44] [45] [73]

12.1.7 “Bit of a downer” on Freemasonry

This category was instituted to record instances in which people had an irrational attitude towards Freemasonry:

Freemasonry and watching horror films are among “sins” that recruits to the Church of England will be encouraged to avoid. .. The General Synod last debated Freemasonry in 1987, concluding that there were “clear difficulties” to be faced by Christians who were Freemasons. However, many of the problems raised in the debate have since been addressed by the leaders of Freemasonry. [30]

Under the above heading included the obituary of Canon G.B. Bentley [29] who objected to clergy being Freemasons [29] as well as the evidence given by Josephine Haynes, Chair of the Association of Women Barrister to the Home Office Select Committee [21].

Results

7 articles categorised under this heading.

[21] [29] [30] [61] [63] [76] [80]

12.1.8 Difference in Definition of “Secret Society”

For a short time Freemasonry described itself as a “society with secrets” as opposed to a “secret society”. Whilst this sound byte had a snappy sound to it, the distinction was lost on the outsider to Freemasonry and has now been dismissed. However, an appreciation of the distinction between the two is fundamental to dismantling the fear of Freemasonry which is based on the concepts that membership is a matter of individual privacy, whilst the only secrecy is in relation to the methods of mutual recognition.

Critics of Freemasonry would like to see a compulsory system put in place, especially in relation to the police:

Any officer who reveals he is a Freemason or a member of any other semi-secret organisation would have the details entered in a force register of interests. The declarations will be voluntary but if an officer stays silent and later faces allegations involving Freemasonry, his silence would count against him. [28]

Mr Paul Whitehouse, Chief Constable of Sussex Police explains:

It’s the secrecy that is the cause for concern. After all, there’s not a widespread feeling that being a Rotarian or a Lions Club member presents a threat [27]

In a letter to the editor, one lady wrote in saying:

If the Freemasons are not a secret society, then why cannot Masonic lodges publish lists of members, as do many other clubs and societies? There would then be no need for MPs, judges and policeman to declare their membership [51]

There are a number of information sources available to the public, for example Company Directors, Doctors and Solicitors but this is but I do not know of any voluntary organisation which actually publishes its membership list for consumption in the public domain.

Results

7 articles categorised under this heading.

[19] [21] [25] [27] [28] [45] [51]

12.1.9 Conspiracy Theory

If Freemasonry is Synonymous with secrecy (See Section 12.1.6 on page 20) then its bedfellow is conspiracy. For example, commenting on the performance of the Rugby Union side, one club official is quoted as having said of London Irish said:

They’ll do anything to get us out of the first division... they don’t want us; they don’t want any exile sides... “They” is presumably a mix of the RFU, the English Professional Rugby Union Clubs, Oliver Stone and the Freemasons...[73]

A second example is taken from a journalist talking about newsgroups on the internet:

Then there’s the sort of conference I’ve been trying to wean myself off for years, the sort in which matters of the day are discussed - such as who killed Kennedy and the extent to which the Freemasons run the American Senate and the Russian parliament. [47]

Not all these comments can be taken in a light-hearted manner, however. This is a criticism which is taken very seriously indeed, as Sir Ivan Lawrence, Chairman of the Home Office Select Committee is quoted as having issue the following veiled threat:

If we ask the questions and we get no answers, the situation is even worse. The press and the public will think that Freemasons had “silenced everyone, including the Lord Chancellor [16]

Results

7 articles categorised under this heading.

[16] [19] [22] [37] [47] [63] [73]

12.1.10 Problems with a Freemason’s Oath

The content of a Freemasons oath is inexorably linked to the concept of Institutionalised nepotism which was covered in Section 12.1.2 on page 16. There is a deeply held, and rather ridiculous, prejudice that a Freemason would risk his career to come to the aid of a fellow mason. The very thought of this kamikaze notion is contrary to common sense, and yet we are informed:

The [Police Complaints] Authority is backing the Association of Police Officers, which has urged the Home Secretary to introduce legislation for a compulsory register of police interests. It would make officers disclose membership of any organisation whose articles of association demanded a bond of loyalty from their members [19]

The notion appears analogous to the secret service infiltrating public institutions:

... but given the number of police officers, especially in the Metropolitan Police, who are Freemasons, and the obligations which the movement puts on them towards each other, it’s bound to create some suspicion [31]

Lord Mackay’s evidence to the Home Office Select Committee (which will be looked at further under Actual Evidence / Facts in Section 12.1.16 on page 27) is distinguished by his objectivity and is the only non-mason to have had an unbiased view of Freemasonry. Then again, he is Scottish and will not have assimilated much the prejudice and misconception which has grown around the Craft in the last fifty years in England. In relation to the oaths he said that:

... Freemasons pledges to help each other were not incompatible with the judicial oath to “do right to all manner of people... without fear or favour, affection or ill will”. If judges found they had any sort of acquaintance or relationship with any one in the case, they would disqualify themselves, he said. That applied to Freemasonry as much as to anything else. [16]

This is a sentiment echoed by His Honour Alan King-Hamilton in a letter to the editor:

Even if it did come to my knowledge (most unlikely, and never did) that a defendant or witness was a Freemason it wouldn’t have made the slightest difference to my approach in the case; the judicial oath and the Freemasons’ obligation are not inconsistent with each other. On the contrary, they are complementary [57]

The context of a Freemason’s oath is taken up by Richard Floyd who appears to be a member of the Craft:

.... in the case of Freemasonry the priorities are unambiguous. A Freemason’s vows are not to take priority over his civil, religious duties. Accordingly a police officer, like anybody holding public office, need never be compromised by Masonic loyalty [58]

Whilst these views appears balanced, it must be emphasised that the accusation that a Freemason holds his loyalty to his brethren above self-preservation appears in the “news” sections, and therefore hold more weight, whilst refuting these claims by and large appear in the letters section and therefore carry less weight as they appear less prominent in the publication.

Results

6 articles categorised under this heading.

[16] [19] [21] [31] [57] [58]

12.1.11 Roman Catholic Church

Three of the articles covered in this section appear under Tarred with the same brush as other constitutions in Section 12.1.14 on page 26 [56] [78] [79] where activities by Freemasons in other countries do not reflect the non-political aspirations of the United Grand Lodge of England.

In the United Kingdom, the publication of the book The Hiram Key received the following review:

The authors pour scorn upon the credulity of believers, but are themselves ready to accept evidence uncritically when it suits them. Ideas aired as hypotheses are presented, only a few pages later, as hard facts. It is also difficult to trust the authors objectivity when they so frequently display crude bias. It is obvious that they loathe the Roman Catholic church as well as mainstream Judaism. [8]

The hypothesis put forward by Lomas and Knight was received with the following comment:

The Roman Catholic Church, which proscribes Freemasonry, dismissed the claims. Mgr Kieran Conry said’ “This sounds like an attempt to give credibility to Freemasons.” [34]

Results

6 articles categorised under this heading

[8] [34] [56] [78] [79] [80]

12.1.12 Ritual as “mumbo jumbo”

In an article written by a former member of the Craft entitled “Hands off the apron-wearing class” one journalist writes:

I resigned from the freemasons 10 years ago, partly because I discovered after a few lodge meetings that it was nothing so exciting, after all, as a conspiracy against the public. With a cabinet minister, peers a couple of judges and several quite high-ranking civil servants in my lodge, it had the ideal ingredients for a P2, Italian-style conspiracy, but it turned out to be merely a congenial club who dinners were preceded by a great deal of mumbo jumbo. I rapidly lost interest.” [64]

One is bound to question this person’s motivation for joining the Craft in the first place if it is “merely a congenial club”. This seems characteristic to me of a person who joins Freemasonry intent on capitalising on their membership to leave slightly disillusioned and be dismissive of the “mumbo jumbo”. The ritual is the very essence of the Craft and this is a poor reflection of the writer’s inability to glean its message.

This theme does not escape the attention of that self-appointed authority on Freemasonry, Patrick Stevens who confidently states that:

There is the concept of passing a skilled craft from member to member and the primitive deification of the Master Builder. One lapsed member described the rituals to me as “pages of mindless gobbledegook to be learnt by heart”. [45]

The “gobbledegook syndrome” does not escape the attention of Lomas and Knight either:

The authors of the Hiram Key are themselves Freemasons. Their objective was merely to research the origins of the masonic rituals, which they admit, have become meaningless over the centuries. [8]

and in a light-hearted review of the Hiram Key one writer conjures up

A deliciously Pythonesque picture... of first-century Jerusalem’s solicitors, accountants and senior police officers trooping to the Jerusalem Temple Masonic Lodge for their little bit of ritual, like today’s Masons. [6]

Results

5 articles categorised under this heading.

[6] [8] [36] [45] [64]

12.1.13 “Smear tactics”

Smear tactics refers to the practice of trying to throw enough mud in the hope that some of it will stick. First off the blocks is our old friend Martin Short.

Mr Short said there were about 350,000 British Masons. Kenneth Noye, the convicted criminal [wanted] in connection with the M25 “road rage” murder, had been a member of the Hammersmith Lodge [20]

If jumping to conclusions were an Olympic event then, judging by his book Inside the Brotherhood, Mr Short would be a world-class athlete. Factually the above statement would appear to be quite correct, but it is exactly this sort of malicious media exposure that is harmful to the reputation of Freemasonry at the expense of enhancing Mr Short’s book sales.

The [Police Complaints Authority] says public suspicion is shared by some non-Masons in the police who had privately expressed their concerns. The submission says that while very few complaints allege that misconduct has occurred as a direct result of an officer’s membership of the Freemasons, there were rather more cases involving suspicion of Masonic influence. It highlights a number of cases involving Freemasonry including one where an officer’s involvement with the organisation appeared to raise serious concern. In a case involving allegations that residents of a privately-run residential care home had been subjected to serious abuse, it emerged that the proprietor of the home and a middle ranking officer had a close relationship a were members of the same Lodge. Similar situations have arisen in a local authority home and another involving allegations of corruption against the force’s Criminal Investigation Department. [19]

This type of comment reinforces the imagined perception that there is an inexorable link between the actions of one individual subsumed for the good of the organisation as a whole. In this imagined culture of Freemasonry we have the zeal of a suicide-bomber, our tolerance of acts against society are immeasurable whilst the loyalty remains that of a dumb animal.

... There was concern that officers were promoted with the help of masonic connections and allegations were made that other officers were in the same lodges as major criminals. [32]

The language used is conciliatory towards presenting factual evidence. There was concern and allegations were made neither of which were substantiated but are sufficient to sow to seeds of doubt in a reader’s mind. I do not know of any Lodges which “harbours major criminals” and personally I would distance myself very rapidly from such activity, as I am sure would the vast majority of the Craft.

This link between the aspirations of an individual and the wider organisation is a dangerous one. With such a large membership there are bound to be embarrassments for one reason or another. However, whilst one case of abuse in the church does not imply that the whole of the institution is corrupt, the anti-masonic lobby seize upon such rumours as “evidence” that masons conspire to corrupt the flow of natural by virtue of their membership. There appears to be a strong correlation between Freemasons and conspiracy in the outside world which is generally accepted as fact.

For example, the terrible tragedy of Dunblane is resurrected on this subject by Frank Cook, MP for Stockton North who states:

... I want the facts to come out. There should be an enquiry and I am hoping that all MPs who are not Freemasons will support my motion [22]

as if Freemasons would attempt to pervert the course of justice and risk their own career is contrary to common sense and morally, beyond contempt.

Not that such “smear tactics” are reserved for public institutions. For example in a shareholders meeting of British Airways, the Chairman, Sir Colin Marshall was accused of “being too thick with their auditors”, Ernst and Young:

... saying they belong to the Freemasons and Rotary, and played golf together. Sir Colin replied: “I don’t belong to the Freemasons, I don’t belong to rotary and I don’t play golf” [37]

Results

5 articles categorised under this heading.

[19] [20] [22] [32] [37]

12.1.14 Tarred with the same brush as other constitutions

In a somewhat similar vein to which Chapter is viewed by non-masons, it would appear that no distinction is made between the different Grand Lodges, and whether these are recognised by one another as being regular. According to this particular misapprehension there is no differentiation between different Constitutions and Freemasonry is a world-wide, unified movement.

Sucking up to the Pope simply does not work, as the Freemasons have just discovered. They offered him their Order of Galilee award for his “continual and meritous” work towards international understanding and friendship. He told them where to go. At the back of his mind was doubtless the series of events in the late 1970s and early 1980s when the Vatican was found to be intimately involved with the sinister P2 Masonic lodge in Italy and the financial scandals surrounding the collapse of Banco Ambrosiana. [56]

Thus the much furrowed field that is P2 is ploughed once more for the sake of nostalgia, and Freemasonry under the UGoE is stereotypically guilty by association with the actions of Italian Masonry. This is a theme expanded upon by the Pope’s visit to France:

The Pope’s visit, his fifth to France since 1980, has provoked anger over a wide range of issues, including church dogma, race, history and national identity, while the papal tour is being opposed by groups ranging from militant secularists to Freemasons and anarchists [78]

At the battlefield of Valmy, 20 miles from Rheims, Freemasons gathered on the spot where revolutionary troops repelled Prussian and Austrian armies bent on destroying the Revolution. On September 22, 1792, the day after the victory, the monarchy was formally abolished and the First Republic proclaimed. [79]

Again no distinction is made between Masonry in different countries, or in fact that there are three separate Constitutions in France only one of which is recognised by the United Grand Lodge of England.

Results

5 articles categorised under this heading.

[22] [56] [78] [79] [80]

12.1.15 Sexual discrimination

With membership being reserved exclusively for men, accusations of alleged “sexual discrimination” are bound to follow:

Ms Hayes added: “We think that secret soundings are wrong anyway - but Freemasonry is just one more factor which enables members to meet and mix with senior judges and members of the Bar in a way denied to non-members, and offer the loyalty pledges they allegedly give each other. Since women are prohibited from becoming full members - at least of all the mainstream lodges - then it is in principle discriminatory [21]

A point taken up by Andrew Roberts:

When Ms Josephine Haynes... states that because of its all-male status, freemasonry is “in principle discriminatory” and thus an illegitimate practice for barristers, her logic strikes at the right to exist of all the thousands of single-sex sporting and social associations through which millions of Britons find pleasure and companionship [64]

Results

4 articles categorised under this heading.

[21] [45] [62] [64]

12.1.16 Actual Evidence / Facts

This category is concerned with factual evidence or statistical information that supports or denies the hypothesis that Freemasonry is a form of institutionalised nepotism. From written evidence submitted by the United Grand Lodge of England to the Select Committee:-

... none of the Law Lords, two of the 39 Appeal Court Judges and one of the 96 High Court judges were Freemasons. One of 75 judges on the Midland and Oxford circuit and 16 out of the 64 judges on the North East circuit were Masons. The committee was given a list of members of the now-disbanded West Midlands Serious Crime Squad who served between 1974 and 1989. The United Grand Lodge said 14 of the 96 individuals named were Masons. [14]

The Serious Crime Squad is one of the litany of well-known cases which are regularly aired as evidence. The fact that nearly 14% of the disgraced Squad is not, I as a Freemason, find particularly warming. What this statistic does not show is how many who were disciplined were Freemasons. This is another example of guilt by association, 14% of its members were Freemasons therefore Freemasonry is corrupt. No comparable figure is given as to the number of Freemasons in the force and whether this figure is representative or not, and whilst disturbing, is inconclusive.

Of the evidence given to The Select Committee Lord Mackay’s was probably the most sensible and objective. This shows the mind of the highest legal mind in the country considering and reporting on evidence using the principle of “innocent until proven guilty”:

I know of no evidence of any substantial kind to suggest that Freemasonry has any adverse effect - indeed, any effect at all - in relation to the conduct of the judiciary, whether magistrates or professionals [judges] [16]

A view echoed by Patrick Stevens:

... but I have never come across any direct evidence of masons using their connection improperly [45]

Later Lord Mackay says that a check in his department has shown that:

.... only six letters were received from the public in [the] space of three months alleging the influence of Freemasonry in the criminal justice system. [16]

Unfortunately we do not have a comparative figure for the number of letters received during this three month period, however, this figure may be considered minimal and one should remember that these letters only allege undue influence.

Returning to the familiar theme of “Masonic influence on planning applications”:

Of all the 30,000 complaints made to the local government ombudsman about planning applications since 1975, only 30 involving masonry have been held to merit investigation. Not one has been upheld. [64]

A rather weak example of evidence is given by one writer who, in a letter to the editor, informs us of:

.... one particularly notorious case in the late 1980s. The senior official in question was courted by a fellow lodge member, prostituted his position and duly went to prison. It might have happened in a golf club, but it didn’t, and how much more convenient and feasible in the yeasty atmosphere of a lodge. [63]

Unfortunately this case is so notorious the author of the letter fails to give us any hint as to which case he is referring to! Given the amount of hearsay and innuendo this last case has to be dismissed as no better than gossip.

Results

4 articles categorised under this heading.

[14] [16] [63] [64]

12.1.17 Charity work

Any Freemason would not need to be reminded that the Three Grand Principles on which Freemasonry rests is Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth and yet I discovered a direct contradiction between our precepts and the way in which the outside world views the Craft. (This article has already been presented in Institutionalised nepotism in Section 12.1.2 on page 16).

Unlike the golf club, there appears to outsiders to be no purpose in masonry other than furthering the interests of fellow masons, although masons claim that much of their work is charitable. Round table and Rotary have a public charitable function, despite being primarily fellowship organisations, but there is a significant lack of community buses proudly presented by the local lodge [45]

This opinionated statement drew a direct reply from the Grand Secretary:

Freemasons spending on charity (over £13 million last year) comes from the pockets of Freemasons (and their families and friends); we do not ask the general public to contribute to our funds... [52]

Results

3 article categorised under this heading.

[53b] [45] [52]

12.1.18 Correct nomenclature

Accurate reporting with respect to Freemasonry is not a strength which is endowed upon the media. This section is in direct contrast to Inaccurate reporting likely to mislead in Section 12.1.1 page 14 where three articles were thought to be accurate and representative as opposed to 14 which were found to be inaccurate

If a precedent has been set by the His Honour Gordon Friend then we need to have gone to the grave before we are to receive this courtesy:

As a keen follower of the Craft, Friend used to like to boast that the Great City Lodge, where he achieved considerable eminence as a Freemason, was “for all ranks” - though by the end of the war he had himself become a major. [11]

In contrast to use of, for example the word Freemason to connote the Order (See, for example item [33] in Unfounded Suspicion in Section 12.1.3 on page 17) we only find two other examples where the correct title of Grand Lodge is used:

In the Masonic movement, Commander Michael Higham, Grand Secretary for the United Grand Lodge of England [27]

and:

Last night Michael Hyams [sic], grand secretary of the United Grand Lodge of England... [28]

Even though in the first instance the refer to the Craft as the Masonic movement, which is somewhat misleading, and in the second instance they get the name of the Grand Secretary wrong!

Results

3 articles categorised under this heading.

[11] [27] [28]

12.1.19 Linked with good citizenship

Only three articles were retrieved under the heading Linked with good citizenship, which is one of the basic precepts of Freemasonry. The first comment is a rather obscure literary analogy:

These institutions, like Tolstoy’s freemasons, may uphold a hundred moralities. But the ones that must take the strain are the formal institutions not of morality but of democracy [55]

It is also one I would take issue with as the main character in Tolstoy’s War and Peace actually takes exception to his fellow masons lack of charitable contribution, a familiar theme for Charity Stewards!

The second item which is linked with good citizenship is a letter (already quoted under Charity work Section 12.1.17 on page 28) from John Bloomfield, a Past Master of Concord Lodge in Southampton:

As a Mason, a Rotarian and former member of the Round Table (you have to retire at 40), I know that all three of these organisations have common aims of fellowship (or brotherhood), good will to all men and charity [53b]

Given the arguments I put forward in Inaccurate reporting likely to mislead in Section 12.1.1 on page 14 his use of the word brotherhood is rather unfortunate.

Results

3 articles categorised under this heading.

[53b] [55] [59]

12.1.20 Strange Comments

I came across two comments which I found most difficult to interpret. The first of these is covered under Incongruous Comments on Freemasonry & Society in Section 12.1.24, the second one evidently seems to have got “friendly societies” and “building societies” completely mixed up:

“My own favourite strategy to give every home a stake in the economy”, he wrote, “is to allow friendly societies to recover much of the role they have relinquished over this century..” Only a couple of trade unions have tip-toed towards Sir Keith [Joseph’s] vision of friendly societies. Evidently freemasons should prepare for a heady new era of expansion [38]

Results

2 articles categorised under this heading.

[38] [61]

12.1.21 Error

One article can only have been a typographical error, as it stated in the obituary of Sir Basil Nield that he was made a “Freemason of the City of London in 1963” when it should have perhaps read “Freeman” [23].

Results

1 article categorised under this heading.

[23]

12.1.22 Modest about their giving

A classic Catch-22 type situation is associated with the money that Freemasonry raises for charity (Covered under Charity work in Section 12.1.17). Traditionally Freemasons have gone about their charity work quietly; if this position is to be reversed then the Craft can no longer claim to be modest about their giving:

Masons contribute significantly to local charities, many of them non-Masonic. Virtually every hospice in the land receives annually large measures of Masonic monetary support. Masons go quietly about their support for worthy causes and do not advertise. There is, locally, a boat which offers free trips for disabled people. Emblazoned on it are Rotary Round Table and Lions logos. It is also supported by a local lodge, but this is only shown in the boat-owner’s accounts. [53b]

Results

1 article categorised under this heading.

[53b]

12.1.23 Demonstrates egalitarian principles

This category was devised as one of the many which were to record the correct precepts of Freemasonry on the basis that “We are all created equal, which is strengthened by our Masonic Obligation”. As with other categories under which Freemasons would like to be considered (Charity work in Section 12.1.17, Linked with good citizenship in Section 12.1.19 and Modest about their giving in Section12.1.22), this category scores very low indeed.

There was, in fact, only one paragraph recorded under this heading, that being under the obituary of His Honour Gordon Friend, who was a Circuit Judge from 1972-84:

As a keen follower of the Craft, Friend used to like to boast that the Great City Lodge, where he achieved considerable eminence as a Freemason, was “for all ranks” - though by the end of the war he had himself become a major [11]

Results

1 article categorised under this heading.

[11]

2.1.24 Incongruous Comments on Freemasonry & Society

This category was devised to record remarks where membership of the Craft appeared to incompatible with good citizenship. Only one article was recorded under this heading: He called himself a man of the people but was a highly placed Freemason, a member of the Royal Dumfries Volunteers and the Royal Company of Archers; two of his sons became colonels in the army of the East India Company and both retired to Cheltenham [61]

Results

1 articles categorised under this heading.

[61]

13. Conclusions

A fundamental principle of a mature democracy is for its citizens to associate with whom they please, provided this is not contrary with the good order of society. The irony of the public perception between Freemasonry and society at large is that, whilst Freemasonry is a secular society whose precepts are honourable and concerned with the good order of society, due to the nature of the “mystic art” it has gained an undeserved reputation of an occult network for the professional middle class.

The following statements may be used to generate the public’s stereotype of a Freemasonry:

Freemasonry corrupts the cause of natural order [3] by favouring the advancement of their brethren above any other consideration.

Through the “Lodge system” Freemasonry runs a cell-like system, whereby the right “connections” can be made.

Thus Freemasonry has evolved a network for its members to a form of institutionalised nepotism - to work in a similar way to which the networks of “operative masonry” existed to protect its members in the form of a “guild”.

This institutionalised nepotism exists on a spectrum from what is euphemistically called “networking” to perverting the course of justice.

With such deeply held assumptions about Freemasonry it is clear to see why 80% of the publicity on Freemasonry was negative. The largely held view is that membership of the Craft is perceived as a conflict of interest with public duty (32%) and yet the precepts of Freemasonry is largely misunderstood by outsiders (Inaccurate reporting likely to mislead 22%).

Deep beliefs manifest themselves where evidence to the contrary becomes unacceptable. Thus we see a 17% score of unfounded suspicion, versus a score of 6% of actual evidence. Members of the public are therefore making assumptions on Freemasonry fuelled by perpetual misinformation no better than primitive superstition.

The commonly held view of Freemasonry as institutionalised nepotism (19%) and the recent Home Office Select Committee accounts for the high reports of concern of corruption amongst the police force (25%) and the large debate as to whether, contrary to every civil liberty, a membership register should be published (26%) in a society widely regarded as secret (11%) and conspiratorial in nature (11%).

Although the reporting seemed fairly balanced, all publicity emanating from the Craft was defensive. The accusations enjoyed a much higher profile both in terms of column inches and appearance in the paper than did any publicity which placed Freemasonry in a positive light.

Thus it would appear that the Craft continues to lose the battle of public credibility to an audience which is misinformed and deeply suspicious of the Craft’s motives.

[1] Eighty were originally reported, although one retrieval in the letters section found two separate letters which came under the same heading.

[2] Today is no longer published.

[3] “Natural order” means that people get what they deserve without prejudice, and are dealt with equitably and objectively.